The OECD’s 2016 report, The Role of Public Procurement in Low-carbon Innovation, argues that a number of practical solutions can make green procurement more effective for low-carbon innovation, including life-cycle costing in value-for-money assessments, i.e. including the cost of externalities such as CO2. Public procurement can also encourage new business models through the provision of services, rather than products, that could support lower material use and environmental impacts.